This review discusses the fundamental physical concepts being developed by physicists and medical researchers to improve existing and create new high-technology radiation-based methods for cancer treatment. It presents a broad overview of current research in the physics of radiation technologies for medicine, including approaches to advancing radiation therapy and imaging using photon, electron, and proton beams, the integration of artificial intelligence into these technologies, and the development of novel methods for radiation dose verification and monitoring. These approaches, founded on innovative physical principles, are currently being developed and translated into clinical practice in radiation therapy and diagnostic imaging. The review describes the underlying physical principles of these technologies and discusses their prospects for future application in the treatment of cancer patients. It also highlights the role of Moscow State University in advancing a wide range of world-class research in radiation medicine through collaboration with scientists and clinicians from leading oncology institutions.