Issues

 / 

2014

 / 

November

  

Reviews of topical problems


Electrical cycle in the Earth’s atmosphere


Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Izhorskaya 13/19, Moscow, 127412, Russian Federation

A qualitative physical picture of atmospheric electricity as a secondary phenomenon of atmospheric water circulation is presented using the key electric atmospheric processes, their average observed parameters and a detailed analysis of separate processes as the basis. The electric processes begin with the charging of aerosols at kilometer altitudes due to aerosols of different aggregate states colliding with one another. Atmospheric electric currents arise from the fall speed difference (in cumulus clouds) between mass-different positively and negatively charged aerosols, resulting in aerosols with a negative charge of, an average, (25—30)e at the lower edge of a cloud. This creates an electric field between earth and the cloud, and the subsequent penetration of streams of warm wet air into the cloud causes the atmosphere to electrically breakdown thus producing lightning strokes. At the same time, these processes cause aerosols to grow and to fall down as rain onto earth. Processes in atmospheric air, including those involving aerosols, electrons and ions, provide a unified physical picture of electric phenomena in the terrestrial atmosphere.

Fulltext pdf (809 KB)
Fulltext is also available at DOI: 10.3367/UFNe.0184.201411a.1153
PACS: 92.60.Bh, 92.60.Mt, 92.60.Pw (all)
DOI: 10.3367/UFNe.0184.201411a.1153
URL: https://ufn.ru/en/articles/2014/11/a/
000349435700001
2-s2.0-84922723906
2014PhyU...57.1041S
Citation: Smirnov B M "Electrical cycle in the Earth's atmosphere" Phys. Usp. 57 1041–1062 (2014)
BibTexBibNote ® (generic)BibNote ® (RIS)MedlineRefWorks

Received: 20th, January 2014, revised: 28th, June 2014, 15th, July 2014

Оригинал: Смирнов Б М «Электрический цикл в земной атмосфере» УФН 184 1153–1176 (2014); DOI: 10.3367/UFNr.0184.201411a.1153

References (172) ↓ Cited by (24) Similar articles (20)

  1. Braham R R (Jr.) J. Meteor. 9 227 (1952)
  2. Lightning rod, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning-rod
  3. Reynolds S E, Brook M, Gourley M F J. Meteor. 14 426 (1957)
  4. Latham J Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 89 265 (1963)
  5. Takahashi T J. Atmos. Sci. 35 1536 (1978)
  6. Latham J Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 107 277 (1981)
  7. Javaratne E R, Saunders C P R, Hallett J Quar. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 109 609 (1983)
  8. Caranti J M, Illingworth A J, Marsh S J (D4) 6041 (1985)
  9. Saunders C P R, Peck S L J. Geophys. Res. 103 13949 (1998)
  10. Saunders C P R et al. Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 130 1395 (2004)
  11. Saunders C P R et al. Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 132 2653 (2006)
  12. Wilson C T R Nature 62 149 (1900)
  13. Wilson C T R Nature 68 102 (1903)
  14. Wilson C T R Proc. Cambr. Philos. Soc. 13 363 (1906)
  15. Wilson C T R Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 80 537 (1908)
  16. Wilson C T R Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 92 555 (1916)
  17. Wilson C T R Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 221 73 (1920)
  18. Wilson C T R Mon. Weather Rev. 49 241 (1921)
  19. Wilson C T R Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 37 32D (1925)
  20. Wilson C T R J. Franklin Inst. 208 1 (1929)
  21. Wilson C T R Proc. Cambr. Philos. Soc. 22 534 (1925)
  22. Gurevich A V, Zybin K P Usp. Fiz. Nauk 171 1177 (2001); Gurevich A V, Zybin K P Phys. Usp. 44 1119 (2001)
  23. Malan D Ann. Geophys. 8 385 (1952)
  24. Schonland B F J Atmospheric Electricity (London: Methuen, 1932)
  25. Chalmers J A Atmospheric Electricity (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1949)
  26. Schonland B F J Atmospheric Electricity (London: Methuen, 1953)
  27. Schonland B F J Gasentladungen II (Handbuch der Physik) Vol. 22 (Ed. S Flügge) (Berlin: Springer, 1956) p. 576
  28. Israël H Atmospheric Electricity Vol. 1 Fundamentals, Conductivity (Leipzig: Academische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1957)
  29. Israël H Atmospheric Electricity Vol. 2 Fields, Charges, Currents (Leipzig: Academische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1961)
  30. Reiter R Phenomena In Atmospheric And Environmental Electricity (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992)
  31. Malan D J Physics Of Lightning (London: English Univ. Press, 1963)
  32. Uman M A Lightning (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969)
  33. Uman M A All About Lightning (New York: Dover Publ., 1986)
  34. Uman M A The Lightning Discharge (Orlando: Academ.Press, 1987)
  35. Rakov V A, Uman M A Lightning: Physics And Effects (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003)
  36. Feynman R P, Leighton R B, Sands M The Feynman Lectures On Physics Vol. 2 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1964)
  37. Mason B J The Physics Of Clouds (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971)
  38. Fowler R G Applied Atomic Collision Physics Vol. 5 (Eds H S W Massey, E W McDaniel, B Bederson) (New York: Academic Press, 1984) p. 35
  39. Byers H R Elements Of Cloud Physics (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1965)
  40. Fletcher N H The Physics Of Rainclouds (Cambridge: Univ. Press, 1962)
  41. Twomey S Atmospheric Aerosols (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1977)
  42. Pruppacher H R, Klett J D Microphysics Of Clouds And Precipitation (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co., 1978)
  43. Fleagle R G, Businger J A An Introduction To Atmospheric Physics (New York: Academic Press, 1980)
  44. Salby M L Fundamentals Of Atmospheric Physics (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996)
  45. Mason B J The Physics Of Clouds (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2010)
  46. Chalmers J A Atmospheric Electricity (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967)
  47. Israël H Atmospheric Electricity (Jerusalem: Keter Press Binding, 1973)
  48. Golde R H (Ed.) Lightning (London: Academic Press, 1977)
  49. Smirnov B M Energetika Atmosfery (Novoe v Zhizni, Nauke, Tekhnike. Ser. Fizika, Vyp. 3) (M.: Znanie, 1979)
  50. Pollack H N, Hunter S J, Johnson R Rev. Geophys. 30 267 (1997)
  51. Earth’s-energy-budget, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth’s-energy-budget
  52. Brooks C E P Geophys. Mem. London 24 147 (1925)
  53. Berger K Lightning (Ed. R H Golde) (London: Academic Press, 1977) p. 119
  54. Orville R E, Spencer D W Mon. Weather Rev. 107 934 (1979)
  55. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution-of-lightning
  56. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catatumbo-lightning
  57. http://maxcls.ya.ru/replies.xml?item-no=369
  58. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/mar/05/venezuela-lightning-el-nino
  59. Moore C B, Vonnegut B Lightning (Ed. R H Golde) (London: Academic Press, 1977) p. 51
  60. Rycroft M et al. Space Sci. Rev. 137 83 (2008)
  61. Williams E Atmos. Res. 91 140 (2009)
  62. Smirnov B M Cluster Processes In Gases And Plasmas (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2010)
  63. Latham J, Stromberg I M Lightning (Ed. R H Golde) (London: Academic Press, 1977) p. 99
  64. Childs W H J Physical Constants: Selected For Students (London: Chapman and Hall, 1972)
  65. http://photo-element.ru/ps/photo-of-lightning/photo-of-lightning.html
  66. Bazelyan E M, Raizer Yu P Usp. Fiz. Nauk 170 753 (2000); Bazelyan E M, Raizer Yu P Phys. Usp. 43 701 (2000)
  67. Bazelyan E M, Raizer Yu P Lightning Physics And Lightning Protection (Bristol: Institute of Physics Publ., 2000)
  68. Bazelyan E M, Raizer Yu P Fizika Molnii i Molniezashchity (M.: Fizmatlit, 2001)
  69. Raizer Yu P Fizika Gazovogo Razryada (Dolgoprudnyi: Intellekt, 2009)
  70. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere-of-Earth
  71. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Properties-of-water
  72. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troposphere
  73. Lide D R (Ed.) Handbook Of Chemistry And Physics 86th ed. (London: CRC Press, 2003 - 2004)
  74. Latham J, Mason B J Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 260 523 (1961)
  75. Latham J, Mason B J Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 260 537 (1961)
  76. Zheleznyak A Kh, Mnatsakanian A Kh, Sizykh S V Teplofiz. Vys. Temp. 20 423 (1982); Zheleznyak M B, Mnatsakanian A Kh, Sizykh S V High Temp. 20 357 (1982)
  77. Dehmer P M, Chupka W A J. Chem. Phys. 62 4525 (1975)
  78. Carter V L J. Chem. Phys. 56 4195 (1972)
  79. Liu N, Pasko V P J. Geophys. Res. 109 A04301 (2004)
  80. Gutzow I, Schmelzer J The Vitreous State: Thermodynamics, Structure, Rheology, And Crystallization (Berlin: Springer, 1995)
  81. Smirnov B M Nanoclusters And Microparticles In Gases And Vapors (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012)
  82. Ostwald W Z. Phys. Chem. 22 289 (1897)
  83. Ostwald W Z. Phys. Chem. 34 495 (1900)
  84. Warner J Tellus 7 450 (1955)
  85. Leaitch W R, Isaak G A Atmosp. Environ. 25 601 (1991)
  86. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-water-content
  87. Wigner E, Seitz F Phys. Rev. 46 509 (1934)
  88. Wigner E Phys. Rev. 46 1002 (1934)
  89. Smirnov B M Clusters And Small Particles: In Gases And Plasmas (New York: Springer, 2000)
  90. Smirnov B M Fundamentals Of Ionized Gases (Weinheim: Wiley, 2012)
  91. Smirnov B M Europhys. Lett. 99 13001 (2012)
  92. Gaskell W et al. Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 104 460 (1978)
  93. Christian H et al. Quart. J .R. Meteor. Soc. 106 159 (1980)
  94. Lifshits I M, Slezov V V Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 35 479 (1958); Lifshitz I M, Slezov V V Sov. Phys. JETP 8 331 (1959)
  95. Lifshits E M, Pitaevskii L P Fizicheskaya Kinetika (M.: Nauka, 1979); Lifshitz E M, Pitaevskii L P Physical Kinetics (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981)
  96. Lifshits I M, Slezov V V Fiz. Tverd. Tela 1 1401 (1959)
  97. Lifshitz I M, Slyozov V V J. Phys. Chem. Solids 19 35 (1961)
  98. Slezov V V, Sagalovich V V Usp. Fiz. Nauk 151 67 (1987); Slezov V V, Sagalovich V V Sov. Phys. Usp. 30 23 (1987)
  99. Ino S J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 27 941 (1969)
  100. Smolukhowski M V Z. Phys. 17 585 (1916)
  101. Vargaftik N B Spravochnik Po Teplofizicheskim Svoistvam Gazov i Zhidkostei (M.: Energoatomizdat, 1972); Vargaftik N B Tables On The Thermophysical Properties Of Liquids And Gases (Washington: Hemisphere Publ. Corp., 1975)
  102. http://www.bugaga.ru/pictures/1146729812-oblaka-v-fotografiyah.html
  103. http://ru.fishki.net/picsw/042011/27/post/mir/mir-029.jpg
  104. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderstorm
  105. Landau L D, Lifshits E M Mekhanika Sploshnykh Sred (M.: GITTL, 1954); Landau L D, Lifshitz E M Fluid Mechanics (London: Pergamon Press, 1959)
  106. Batchelor G K An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics (Cambridge: Univ. Press, 1967)
  107. Drazin P G, Reid W H Hydrodynamic Stability (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981)
  108. Acheson D J Elementary Fluid Dynamics (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990)
  109. Krainov V P Kachestvennye Metody v Fizicheskoi Kinetike i Gidrogazodinamike (M.: Vysshaya shkola, 1989); Krainov V P Qualitative Methods In Physical Kinetics And Hydrodynamics (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1992)
  110. Chandrasekhar S Hydrodynamic And Hydromagnetic Stability (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961)
  111. Koschmieder E L Bénard Cells And Taylor Vortices (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993)
  112. Getling A V Rayleigh—Bénard Convection Structure And Dynamics (Advanced Ser. in Nonlinear Dynamics) Vol. 11 (Singapore: World Scientific Publ., 1998)
  113. Gershuni G Z, Zhukhovitskii E M Konvektivnaya Ustoichivost’ Neszhimaemoi Zhidkosti (M.: Nauka, 1972)
  114. Lorenz E The Nature And Theory Of The General Circulation Of The Atmosphere (Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, 1967)
  115. Andrews D G, Holton J R, Leovy C B Middle Atmosphere Dynamics (Orlando: Academic Press, 1987)
  116. Andrews D G An Introduction To Atmospheric Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000)
  117. Csanady G T Turbulent Diffusion In The Environment (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publ. Co., 1973)
  118. Tritton D J Physical Fluid Dynamics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988)
  119. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain
  120. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection
  121. Cotton W R, Anthes R A Storm And Cloud Dynamics (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989)
  122. Emanuel K A Atmospheric Convection (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994)
  123. Houze R A (Jr.) Cloud Dynamics (San Diego: Academic Press, 1993)
  124. Massey H Negative Ions (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976)
  125. Smirnov B M Cluster Ions And Van Der Waals Molecules (Philadelphia: Gordon and Breach Sci. Publ., 1992)
  126. Smirnov B M Negative Ions (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982)
  127. Einstein A Ann. Physik 17 549 (1905)
  128. Einstein A Ann. Physik 19 371 (1906)
  129. Einstein A Z. Electrochem. 14 235 (1908)
  130. Ellis H W et al. Atom. Data Nucl. Data Tabl. 17 177 (1976)
  131. Ellis H W et al. Atom. Data Nucl. Data Tabl. 22 179 (1978)
  132. Ellis H W et al. Atom. Data Nucl. Data Tabl. 31 113 (1984)
  133. Viehland L A, Mason E A Atom. Data Nucl. Data Tabl. 60 37 (1995)
  134. Neher H V J. Geophys. Res. 76 1637 (1971)
  135. Nicolet M Planet. Space Sci. 23 637 (1975)
  136. Krivolutsky A et al. Phys. Chem. Earth 27 471 (2002)
  137. Sayers J Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 169 83 (1938)
  138. Mächler W Z. Phys. 104 1 (1964)
  139. Thomson J J Philos. Mag. 47 334 (1924)
  140. LangevP Ann. Chem. Phys. 8 245 (1905)
  141. Ruderman M A, Chamberlain J W Planet Space Sci. 23 247 (1975)
  142. Stommel H J. Meteor. 4 91 (1947)
  143. Taylor B R, Baker M B J. Atmos. Sci. 48 112 (1991)
  144. Gregory D Quart. J. R. Meteor. Sci. 127 153 (2001)
  145. Squires P Tellus 10 256 (1958)
  146. Heymsfield A J, Johnson P N, Dye J E J. Atmos. Sci. 35 1689 (1978)
  147. Heus T, Jonker H J J J. Atmos. Sci. 65 1003 (2008)
  148. Heus T et al. J. Atmos. Sci. 65 2581 (2008)
  149. Kyle T G, Sand W R Science 180 1274 (1973)
  150. Petrenko V F, Ryzhkin I A J. Phys. Chem. B 101 6285 (1997)
  151. Petrenko V F, Whitworth R W Physics Of Ice (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999)
  152. Dash J G, Mason B L, Wettlaufer J S J. Geophys. Res. 106 20395 (2001)
  153. Nelson J, Baker M Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 3 41 (2003)
  154. Williams E R, Zhang R, Rydock J J. Atmos. Sci. 48 2195 (1991)
  155. Dong Y, Yallett J J. Geophys. Res. 97 20361 (1992)
  156. Mason B L, Dash J G J. Geophys. Res. 105 10185 (2000)
  157. Berdeklis P, List R J. Atmos. Sci. 58 2751 (2001)
  158. Kuettner J P, Levin Z J. Atmos. Sci. 38 2470 (1981)
  159. Saunders C P R J. Appl. Meteor. 32 642 (1993)
  160. Marshall B J P, Latham J, Saunders C R R Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 104 163 (1978)
  161. Petrenko V F, Colbeck S C J. Appl. Phys. 77 4518 (1995)
  162. Saunders C P R Atmos. Res. 58 187 (2001)
  163. Hallett J, Saunders C P R J. Atmos. Sci. 36 2230 (1979)
  164. Rydock J P, Williams E R Quart. J. R. Meteor. Soc. 117 409 (1991)
  165. Ives R L J. Franklin Inst. 226 691 (1938)
  166. Imyanitov I M Elektrizatsiya Samoletov v Oblakakh i Osadkakh (L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1970)
  167. MacGorman D R et al. Bull. Am. Meteor. Soc. 89 997 (2008)
  168. Frenkel’ Ya I Teoriya Yavlenii Atmosfernogo Elektrichestva (L.- M.: Gostekhizdat, 1949)
  169. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water-vapor
  170. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/05/photogalleries/volcano-photos
  171. http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2011/06/chiles-puyehue-volcano-erupts/10081/
  172. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.-Elmo’s-fire

© 1918–2024 Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk
Email: ufn@ufn.ru Editorial office contacts About the journal Terms and conditions