RSS feeds
РусскийEnglish
Issue 4, 2024
Volume year page
Issues Authors PACS Subscription For authors

Issues

 / 

2010

 / 

April

←  →

From the history of physics


How in the 20th century physicists, chemists and biologists answered the question: what is life?

 a,  b
a Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Butlerova 5-a, Moscow, 117485, Russian Federation
b National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA

The most essential achievements in 20th century biology are analyzed and the question of how throughout the last century physicists, chemists and biologists answered the question “What is life?” is considered. The most considerable scientific achievement of 20th century biology, and perhaps of all science, is considered by many to be the discovery by biologist J Watson and physicists F Crick and M Wilkinson that resulted in establishing the DNA structure. The related work of well-known scientists of the USA and Europe, E Schrödinger, L Pauling, M Perutz, J Kendrew, and of the Russian scientists N K Koltsov, N V Timofeev-Resovsky, G A Gamow, A M Olovnikov, is analyzed. Presently, when the structure of DNA, the process of gene expression and even the genomes of human beings are already known, scientists realize that we still do not know many of the most important things. In our opinion, the 20th century studies of nucleic acids largely ignored the principle of the cyclic organisation of DNA. In this connection, we analyze the principle of cyclicity, which in its generality may well complement the concept of the atomic structure of matter.

Fulltext pdf (1.2 MB)
Fulltext is also available at DOI: 10.3367/UFNe.0180.201004d.0393
PACS: 01.65.+g, 01.70.+w, 87.15.−v (all)
DOI: 10.3367/UFNe.0180.201004d.0393
URL: https://ufn.ru/en/articles/2010/4/d/
000280543000004
2-s2.0-77958523389
2010PhyU...53..377R
Citation: Reutov V P, Schechter A N "How in the 20th century physicists, chemists and biologists answered the question: what is life?" Phys. Usp. 53 377–396 (2010)
BibTexBibNote ® (generic)BibNote ® (RIS)MedlineRefWorks

Оригинал: Реутов В П, Шехтер А Н «Как в XX веке физики, химики и биологи отвечали на вопрос: что есть жизнь?» УФН 180 393–414 (2010); DOI: 10.3367/UFNr.0180.201004d.0393

References (138) ↓ Cited by (13) Similar articles (20)

  1. Shnol’ S E Fiziko-khimicheskie Faktory Biologicheskoi Evolyutsii (M.: Nauka, 1979); Shnoll S E The Physicochemical Factors Of Biological Evolution (Chur: Harwood Acad., 1981)
  2. Ptitsyna I B, Muzalevskii Yu S Dni Meditsiny i Biologii v Peterburge (SPb.: Rostok, 1998) p. 43-61
  3. Ptitsyna I B, Muzalevskii Yu S v Kn. Bauer E S. Teoreticheskaya Biologiya (SPb.: Rostok, 2002) p. 50-88
  4. Zhvirblis V E Ros. Khim. Zhurn. 38 107 (1994)
  5. McMurray W C Essentials Of Human Metabolism: The Relationship Of Biochemistry To Human Physiology And Disease (Hagerstown, Md.: Medical Dept., Harper & Row, 1977); Mak-Myurrei U Obmen Veshchestv u Cheloveka: Osnovy Ucheniya o Vzaimosvyazi Biokhimii s Fiziologiei i Patologiei (M.: Mir, 1980)
  6. Orbeli L A Izbrannye Trudy (M.-L.: Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1961-1968)
  7. Darwin C On The Origin Of Species By Means Of Natural Selection (London: J. Murray, 1859); Darvin Ch Proiskhozhdenie Vidov Putem Estestvennogo Otbora ili Sokhranenie Izbrannykh Porod v Bor’be za Zhizn’ (M.-L.: Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1939)
  8. Bernal J D The Origin Of Life (Cleveland: World Publ. Co., 1967); Bernal Dzh Vozniknovenie Zhizni (M.: Mir, 1969)
  9. Oparin A I Vozniknovenie Zhizni na Zemle 3-e izd. (M.: Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1957); Oparin A I The Origin Of Life 2nd ed. (Mineola: Dover Publ., 2003)
  10. Haldane J B S New Biol. 16 12 (1954)
  11. Berg L S Trudy Po Teorii Evolyutsii, 1922 - 1930 (L.: Nauka, 1977)
  12. Broda E The Evolution Of The Bioenergetic Processes (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1975); Broda E Evolyutsiya Bioenergeticheskikh Protsessov (M.: Mir, 1978)
  13. Calvin M Chemical Evolution; Molecular Evolution Towards The Origin Of Living Systems On The Earth And Elsewhere (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969); Kal’vin M Khimicheskaya Evolyutsiya. Molekulyarnaya Evolyutsiya, Vedushchaya k Vozniknoveniyu Zhivykh Sistem na Zemle i Na Drugikh Planetakh (M.: Mir, 1971)
  14. Quastler H The Emergence Of Biological Organization (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1964); Kastler G Vozniknovenie Biologicheskoi Organizatsii (M.: Mir, 1967)
  15. Kenyon D H, Steinman G Biochemical Predestination (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969); Ken’on D, Steinman G Biokhimicheskoe Predopredelenie (M.: Mir, 1972)
  16. Lyubishchev A A Problemy Formy, Sistematiki i Evolyutsii Organizmov (M.: Nauka, 1982)
  17. Rudenko A P Filosofiya Biologii: Vchera, Segodnya, Zavtra (Otv. red. I K Liseev) (M.: Institut filosofii RAN, 1996) p. 98
  18. Rutten M G The Origin Of Life By Natural Causes (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1971); Rutten M Proiskhozhdenie Zhizni (estestvennym Putem) (M.: Mir, 1973)
  19. Fox R F Energy And The Evolution Of Life (New York: W.H. Freeman, 1988); Foks R Energiya i Evolyutsiya Zhizni na Zemle (M.: Mir, 1992)
  20. Fox S W, Dose K Molecular Evolution And The Origin Of Life (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1972); Foks S, Doze K Molekulyarnaya Evolyutsiya i Vozniknovenie Zhizni (M.: Mir, 1975)
  21. Eigen M "Selforganization of matter and the evolution of biological macromolecules" Naturwissenschaften 58 465 (1971); Eigen M Samoorganizatsiya Materii i Evolyutsiya Biologicheskikh Makromolekul (M.: Mir, 1973)
  22. Yablokov A V, Yusufov A G Evolyutsionnoe Uchenie 2-e izd. (M.: Vysshaya shkola, 1981)
  23. Grushevitskaya T G, Sadokhin A P Kontseptsii Sovremennogo Estestvoznaniya (M.: Vysshaya shkola, 1998)
  24. Orgel L E Trends Biochem. Sci. 23 491 (1998)
  25. Al’tshtein A D Mol. Biol. 21 309 (1987)
  26. Cpirin A S Vest. Ross. Akad. Nauk 73 117 (2003); Spirin A S Herald Russ. Acad. Sci. 73 30 (2003)
  27. Gilbert W Nature 319 618 (1986)
  28. Sagan C (Ed.) Communication With Extraterrestrial Intelligence (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1973)
  29. Bradbury R, Clarke A C, Murray B, Sagan C, Sullivan W Mars And The Mind Of Man (New York: Harper & Row, 1973)
  30. Sagan C Other Worlds (New York: Bantam Books, 1975)
  31. Voitkevich G V Vozniknovenie i Razvitie Zhizni na Zemle (M.: Nauka, 1988); Voitkevich G V Origin And Development Of Life On Earth (Moscow: Mir, 1990)
  32. Vorontsov N N Razvitie Evolyutsionnykh Idei v Biologii (M.: Progress-Traditsiya. ABF, 1999)
  33. Zavadskii K M Razvitie Evolyutsionnoi Teorii posle Darvina (1859 - 1920-e Gg.) (L.: Nauka, 1973)
  34. Blyakher L Ya (Red.) Istoriya Biologii s Drevneishikh Vremen do Nashikh Dnei. T. 2. Istoriya Biologii s Nachala KhKh Veka do Nashikh Dnei (M.: Nauka, 1975)
  35. Kimura M The Neutral Theory Of Molecular Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983); Kimura M Molekulyarnaya Evolyutsiya: Teoriya Neitral’nosti (M.: Mir, 1985)
  36. Chetverikov S S "O nekotorykh momentakh evolyutsionnogo protsessa s tochki zreniya sovremennoi genetiki" Klassiki Sovetskoi Genetiki. 1920 - 1940 (Otv. red. P M Zhukovskii) (L.: Nauka, 1968); Chetverikov S S Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 105 167 (1961)
  37. Blyumenfel’d L A O Sushchnosti Zhizni (Otv. red. G M Frank) (M.: Nauka, 1964) p. 121-128
  38. Astaurov B L Vopr. Filosofii (2) 70 (1972)
  39. Blyumenfel’d L A Problemy Biologicheskoi Fiziki (M.: Nauka, 1974); Blumenfeld L A Problems Of Biological Physics (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1981)
  40. Blyumenfel’d L A Reshaemye i Nereshaemye Problemy Biologicheskoi Fiziki (M.: URSS, 2002)
  41. Watson J D, Crick F H C Nature 171 737 (1953)
  42. Wilkins M H F, Stokes A R, Wilson H R Nature 171 738 (1953)
  43. Franklin R E, Gosling R G Nature 171 740 (1953)
  44. Tarantul V Z Genom Cheloveka. Entsiklopediya, Napisannaya Chetyr’mya Bukvami (M.: Yazyki slavyanskoi kul’tury, 2003)
  45. Urmantsev Yu A Simmetriya v Prirode i Priroda Simmetrii (M.: Mysl’, 1974)
  46. Reutov V P Biokhimiya 67 353 (2002); Reutov V P Biochemistry 67 293 (2002)
  47. Wigner E P Symmetries And Reflections: Scientific Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970); Vigner E Invariantnost’ i Zakony Sokhraneniya. Etyudy o Simmetrii (M.: Mir, 1971)
  48. Weyl H Symmetry (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1952); Veil’ G Simmetriya (M.: URSS, 2003)
  49. Waddington C H Towards A Theoretical Biology Vol. 1 (Ed. C H Waddington) (Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co., 1968); Uoddington K Na Puti k Teoreticheskoi Biologii Vol. 1 (Pod red. K Uoddingtona) (M.: Mir, 1970) p. 11
  50. Glansdorff P, Prigogine I Thermodynamic Theory Of Structure, Stability And Fluctuations (London: Wiley-Intersci., 1971); Glensdorf P, Prigozhin I Termodinamicheskaya Teoriya Struktury, Ustoichivosti i Fluktuatsii (M.: Mir, 1973)
  51. Prigogine I The End Of Certainty: Time, Chaos, And The New Laws Of Nature (New York: Free Press, 1997); Prigozhin I Konets Opredelennosti. Vremya, Khaos i Novye Zakony Prirody (M.-Izhevsk: RKhD, 2001)
  52. Prigogine I, Stengers I Order Out Of Chaos: Man’s New Dialogue With Nature (Boulder, C.O.: New Science Library, 1984); Prigozhin I, Stengers I Vremya, Khaos, Kvant. K Resheniyu Paradoksa Vremeni (M.: URSS, 2001)
  53. Chaikovskii Yu V Evolyutsiya (M.: Tsentr sistemnykh issledovanii, 2003)
  54. Chernavskii D S Usp. Fiz. Nauk 170 157 (2000); Chernavskii D S Phys. Usp. 43 151 (2000)
  55. Lewin B Genes 2nd Ed. (New York: Wiley, 1985); L’yuin B Geny (M.: Mir, 1987)
  56. Alberts B et al. Molecular Biology Of The Cell 2nd ed. (New York: Garland Publ., 1989); Al’berts B i dr. Molekulyarnaya Biologiya Kletki Vol. 1-3 2-e izd. (M.: Mir, 1994)
  57. Virchow R Die Cellularpathologie In Ihrer Begrundung Auf Physiologische Und Pathologische Gewebelehre (Berlin: A. Hirschnald, 1958); Virchow R Cellular Pathology As Based Upon Physiological And Pathological Histology (Birmingham, Ala.: Classics of Medicine Library, 1978); Virkhov R Tsellyulyarnaya Patologiya Uchenie, Osnovannoe Fiziologicheskoi Patologicheskoi Gistologii (1865)
  58. Sudhoff K (Ed.) Rudolf Virchow Und Die Deutschen Naturforscherversammlungen (Leipzig: Acad. Verlag, 1922)
  59. Raff R A, Kaufman T C Embryons, Genes, And Evolution: The Developmental-Genetic Basis Of Evolutionary Change (New York: Macmillan, 1983); Reff R, Kofmen T Embriony, Geny i Evolyutsiya (M.: Mir, 1986)
  60. Yarushina T I Metodologicheskie Problemy Biologii i Meditsiny (Trudy Mosk. Gos. Med. In-ta, T. 31 Razdel 1. Ser. Filosofiya, Vyp. 1. Pod Red. M B Turovskogo) (M.: Vtoroi Mosk. gos. med. in-t im. N.I. Pirogova, 1974) p. 5-37
  61. Watson J D Molecular Biology Of The Gene 3rd ed. (Menlo Park, Calif.: W.A. Benjamin, 1976); Uotson Dzh Molekulyarnaya Biologiya Gena (M.: Mir, 1978)
  62. Schrödinger E What Is Life? The Physical Aspects Of The Living Cell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944); Shredinger E Chto Takoe Zhizn’? S Tochki Zreniya Fizika (M.: Atomizdat, 1972)
  63. Schrödinger E What Is Life? The Physical Aspect Of The Living Cell And Mind And Matter (Cambridge: Univ. Press, 1967)
  64. Turing A M Mind 59 433 (1950)
  65. Ridley M Genome: The Autobiography Of A Species In 23 Chapters (New York: HarperCollins, 1999); Ridli M Genom: Avtobiografiya Vida v 23 Glavakh (M.: Eksmo, 2008)
  66. Hershey A D, Chase M J. Gen. Physiol. 36 39 (1952)
  67. Watson J D The Double Helix: A Personal Account Of The Discovery Of The Structure Of DNA (New York: Atheneum, 1968)
  68. Cochran W, Crick F H, Vand V Acta Crystallogr. 5 581 (1952)
  69. Andreeva N S Priroda (8) 74 (2006)
  70. Engels F Dialektik Der Natur (Berlin: Dietz, 1951); Engels F Dialectics Of Nature (Moscow: Progress Publ., 1964); Engel’s F Dialektika Prirody (M.: Politizdat, 1982)
  71. Wilkins M The Third Man Of The Double Helix: The Autobiography Of Maurice Wilkins (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003)
  72. Korochkin L I, Fridman S A Priroda (8) 75 (2004)
  73. Watson J D et al. (Eds) Molecular Biology Of The Gene 5th ed. (New York: Benjamin Cummings, 2003)
  74. Watson J D, Berry A DNA: The Secret Of Life (New York: Random House, 2003)
  75. Maddox B Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady Of DNA (New York: HarperCollins, 2002)
  76. Bernal J D Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 141 71 (1953)
  77. Bernal J D Nature 169 1007 (1952)
  78. Bernal J D Q. Rev. Biophys. 1 81 (1968)
  79. Pauling L The Nature Of The Chemical Bond, And The Structure Of Molecules And Crystals; An Introduction To Modern Structural Chemistry 2nd ed. (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1940); Pauling L Priroda Khimicheskoi Svyazi (M.-L.: Goskhimizdat, 1947)
  80. Wheland G W The Theory Of Resonance And Its Application To Organic Chemistry (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1944); Ueland Dzh Teoriya Rezonansa i Ee Primenenie v Organicheskoi Khimii (M.: Mir, 1948)
  81. Perutz M F Is Science Necessary? Essays On Science And Scientists (New York: Cold Spring Harbor Press, 1989)
  82. Perutz M F, Wilkins M H F, Watson J D Science 164 1537 (1969)
  83. Perutz M F I Wish I’d Make You Angry Earlier. Essays On Science, Scientists, And Humanity (Plainview, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1998)
  84. Perutz M F Nature Struct. Biol. 1 667 (1994)
  85. Schechter A N Blood 112 3927 (2008)
  86. Kendrew J C, Perutz M F Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 194 375 (1948)
  87. Pauling L, Corey R B Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 37 235 (1951)
  88. Pauling L, Corey R B Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 37 282 (1951)
  89. Pauling L J. Chem. Soc. 1461 (1948)
  90. Pauling L, Corey R B Nature 171 346 (1953)
  91. Pauling L, Corey R B Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 39 84 (1953)
  92. Kol’tsov N K Organizatsiya Kletki (M.-L.: Biomedgiz, 1936)
  93. Rokitskii P F Priroda (7) 24 (1972)
  94. Babkov V V Ontogenez 33 307 (2002); Babkov V V Russ. J. Dev. Biol. 33 255 (2002)
  95. Shnol’ S E Geroi, Zlodei, Konformisty Otechestvennoi Nauki 3-e izd. (M.: Librokom, 2010)
  96. Timoféeff-Ressovsky N V, Zimmer K G, Delbrük M Göttingen 1 189 (1935)
  97. Haldane J B S Nature 155 375 (1945)
  98. Watson J D, Crick F H C Nature 171 964 (1953)
  99. Franklin R E, Gosling R G Nature 172 156 (1953)
  100. Watson J D, Crick F H C Nature 171 737 (1953)
  101. Watson J D Genes, Girls, And Gamow: After The Double Helix (New York: Random House, 2002)
  102. Crick F H C J. Mol. Biol. 38 367 (1968)
  103. Schechter A N Nature Struct. Biol. 2 621 (1995)
  104. Olovnikov A M Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 201 1469 (1971); Olovnikov A M Dokl. Biochem. 201 394 (1971)
  105. Olovnikov A M J. Theor. Biol. 41 181 (1973)
  106. Greider C W, Blackburn E H Cell 43 405 (1985)
  107. Blackburn E H, Greider C W, Szostak J W Nature Med. 12 1133 (2006)
  108. Szostak J W, Blackburn E H Cell 29 245 (1982)
  109. Eigen M, Schuster P The Hypercycle, A Principle Of Natural Self-organization (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1979); Eigen M, Shuster P Gipertsikl: Printsipy Samoorganizatsii Makromolekul (M.: Mir, 1982)
  110. Popov E M Problema Belka T. 3. Strukturnaya Organizatsiya Belka (M.: Nauka, 1997)
  111. Krebs H A Harvey Lect. 44 165 (1948)
  112. Krebs H A Biochem. J. 34 460 (1940)
  113. Krebs H A Perspect. Biol. Med. 14 154 (1970)
  114. Krebs H A et al. Biochem. J. 176 733 (1978)
  115. Reutov V P i dr. Voprosy Meditsinskoi Khimii 40 (6) 31 (1994)
  116. Reutov V P, Sorokina E G Biokhimiya 63 1029 (1998); Reutov V P, Sorokina E G Biochemistry 63 874 (1998)
  117. Reutov V P, Sorokina E G, Kayushin L P Vestn. Ross. Akad. Med. Nauk (4) 35 (2000)
  118. Reutov V P, Sorokina E G, Okhotin V E, Kositsyn N S Tsiklicheskie Prevrashcheniya Oksida Azota v Organizme Mlekopitayushchikh (M.: Nauka, 1998)
  119. Reutov V P, Sorokina E G, Kositsyn N S, Okhotin V E Problema Oksida Azota v Biologii i Meditsine i Printsip Tsiklichnosti (M.: URSS, 2003)
  120. Kuznetsov B G Ocherki Fizicheskoi Atomistiki KhKh V. (M.: Nauka, 1966)
  121. Feynman R The Character Of Physical Law (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1965); Feinman R Kharakter Fizicheskikh Zakonov (M.: Nauka, 1987)
  122. Malinetskii G G "Predislovie" v Kn. Penrouz R. Novyi Um Korolya: O Komp’yuterakh, Myshlenii i Zakonakh Fiziki (M.: LKI, 2008)
  123. Tayler R J The Origin Of The Chemical Elements (London: Wykenham Publ., 1972); Teiler R Dzh Proiskhozhdenie Khimicheskikh Elementov (M.: Mir, 1975)
  124. Ryzhov V N Evolyutsiya Vselennoi i Proiskhozhdenie Atomov (Saratov: MVUIP "Sigma-plyus", 1998)
  125. Lundberg J O, Weitzberg E, Gladwin M T Nature Rev. Drug Discov. 7 156 (2008)
  126. Samosudova N V, Reutov V P, Larionova N P, Chailakhyan L M Neurosci. Behav. Physiol. 38 363 (2008)
  127. Brown G H, Wolken J J Liquid Crystals And Biological Structures (New York: Academic Press, 1979); Braun G, Uolken Dzh Zhidkie Kristally i Biologicheskie Struktury (M.: Mir, 1982)
  128. Zhabotinskii A M Kontsentratsionnye Avtokolebaniya (M.: Nauka, 1974)
  129. Khrenov N A (Otv. red.) Tsiklicheskie Ritmy v Istorii, Kul’ture, Iskusstve (M.: Nauka, 2004)
  130. Skulachev V P Energetika Biologicheskikh Membran (M.: Nauka, 1989)
  131. Oster G, Wang H Biochim. Biophys. Acta BBA Bioeng. 1458 482 (2000)
  132. Buffon G L Oeuvres Completes Vol. 1-20 (Paris: Pourrat freres et Roret, 1834 - 1835)
  133. Buffon G L L Histoire Naturelle (Paris: De l’Imprimerie Royale, 1749 - 1767); Buffon G L L Natural History (London, 1812); Byuffon Zh L Vseobshchaya Chastnaya Estestvennaya Istoriya. Ch. 1 - 10 (SPb., 1802 - 1827)
  134. Akhutin A V Istoriya Printsipov Fizicheskogo Eksperimenta (Ot Antichnosti do XVII V.) (M.: Nauka, 1976)
  135. Moiseev N N, Aleksandrov V V, Tarko A M Chelovek i Biosfera: Opyt Sistemnogo Analiza i Eksperimenty s Modelyami (M.: Nauka, 1985)
  136. Moiseev N N To Be Or Not To Be — Humanity’s Dilemma (Moscow: Noosphere, 2002)
  137. Crick F Life Itself: Its Origin And Nature (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981); Krik F Zhizn’ kak Ona Est’: Ee Zarozhdenie i Sushchnost’ (M.: Inst. komp’yut. issled., 2002)
  138. Orgel L E Science 305 1118 (2004)
© 1918–2024 Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk
Email: ufn@ufn.ru Editorial office contacts About the journal Terms and conditions